Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), a principal sub-component of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), are undoubtedly an important source of revenue and rural employment. This review paper explores the current ecological and prioritized status of MAPs by the Government and the practical significance of MAPs in bodily health, lucrative employment to the Nepalese population, and revenue opportunities to the government based on 72 published articles from 1995 to 2021. The Department of Plant Resources (DPR) reported that the number of medicinal plant species has increased from 701 in 2007 to 819 in 2016 with 285 endemic plant species from 43 families, and 238 chemically tested MAPs species for medicinal significance. MAPs are highly prevalent within the 1000-2500m elevation gradient in Nepal. GoN has categorized 30 species for economic development, 12 species for cultivation and research, 12 species for protection, and 237 species for collecting royalties. Around 100 Nepalese NTFPs/MAPs are traded, but only 20 species accounts for 80% of the total trade in terms of volume and value. Nepal ranks 42nd with a value of $7.4 million and 62nd with a value of $3.3 million in exports of MAPs and essential oils, respectively, in 2017. About 80% of the Nepalese population relies on traditional medicine for basic health needs. The NTFPs/MAPs Business Promotion Strategy specifies 20 species for product promotion across Nepal. As current data are still lacking on different uses of MAPs in Nepalese society, this comprehensive review will facilitate herbal specialists, policymakers, scientific researchers, botanists, and various key stakeholders to assure better research and increase the export of MAPs in Nepal. Therefore, this study recommends public, private, and government- agencies to contribute to the infrastructure development through competitive "field-to-market" incentives and funding for the increment of the export of MAPs that directly improve the socio-economic status of the Nepalese people.

Status and Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in Nepalese Livelihood

Voluntad❦Querer❦Albedrío❦Testamento

Herbal medicine consists in therapeutical use of plants or herbal medicinal products, in the form of patent medicines, magistral or pharmaceutical preparations or divided pharmaceutical products. It is meant by herbal medicinal product “any medicine the active substances of which are exclusively one or several herbal preparations or an association of one or several herbal substances or herbal preparations”. Herbal medicine are therefore full medicines and as such, they are submitted to the same quality requirements than those required for any other medicine. The directive 2004/24/EC of the European Parliament and ofthe Council of 31 March 2004 amending, as regards traditional herbal medicinal products, the directive 2001/83/EC on the Community code relative to medicinal products for human use, however permits some relaxings allowing to supply purely bibliographical toxicological and clinical data when the conditions required to be able to enjoy such a “traditional useregistration” are fulfilled. As regards herbal medicines the medicinal use of which have been proved as “well-established”, they are able to enjoy an exemption of clinical studies too, but toxicological data concerning these ones should nevertheless be produced. This European legislation aims to guarantee for the patient quality, safety and efficacy of the remedies he consumes, to permit free therapeutic choice and free movement of herbal medicines within the European Union, as well as preservation of natural vegetal resources (vegetal biodiversity) and respect of intellectual property of the traditional knowledges holders. It could be applicated in other countries like African countries, too.

La phytothérapie consiste en l’utilisation thérapeutique de plantes ou de médicaments à base de plantes, sous forme de spécialités pharmaceutiques, de préparations (magistrales ou officinales) ou de produits officinaux divisés. On entend par médicament à base de plantes (MABP) « tout médicament dont les substances actives sont exclusivement une ou plusieurs substances végétales ou préparations à base de plantes ou une association d’une ou de plusieurs substances végétales ou préparations à base de plantes ». Il s’agit donc de médicaments à part entière qui sont ainsi soumis aux mêmes exigences de qualité que celles requises pour tout autre médicament. La directive 2004/24/CE, permet toutefois quelques assouplissements autorisant à fournir des données toxicologiques et cliniques purement bibliographiques, lorsque les conditions requises pour pouvoir bénéficier d'un tel "enregistrement de l'usage traditionnel" sont remplies. Quant aux médicaments dont l'usage médical est "bien établi", ils peuvent également faire l'objet d'une dispense d'essais cliniques, mais les données toxicologiques les concernant doivent néanmoins être fournies. Cette législation européenne vise à garantir au patient la qualité, la sécurité et l'efficacité des remèdes qu'il consomme, à permettre le libre choix thérapeutique, la libre circulation des médicaments au sein de l’Union Européenne ainsi que la préservation des ressources naturelles végétales et le respect de la propriété intellectuelle et pourrait inspirer d'autres pays du monde qui ne disposent pas à ce jour des outils législatifs nécessaires à la réglementation de leurs remèdes traditionnels, en particulier les pays africains.

Herbal medicinal products in Europe : status, registration, controls

Le médicament à base de plantes en Europe : statut, enregistrement, contrôles

Enregistrement par procédure simplifiée

L’étude des sources et des emprunts de Abū Ḥāmed Moḥammad Ġazzālī, dans son Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm al-dīn, est à peine commencée. On sait qu’il a puisé à Muḥāsibī, à Abū Ṭālib Makkī, à Qušayrī, etc. L’auteur montre ici, pour ce qui est du soufisme dans l’Iḥyā’, que l’ouvrage de Ḫargūšī, le Tahḏīb al-asrār (sur lui voir dans ce volume, n° 213) « est l’une des plus importantes sources qui ont servi à Abū Ḥāmed Ġazzālī pour composer la connaissance de soufisme qu’il livre dans son ouvrage de l’Iḥyā’ » (p. ...

‘In the herbal medicinal product va ma’sa-e: Oufiyane-ye’. Ma’aref, 17, 3 (1379/2000-1), pp. 52-94 

« Ġazzālī va ma’ḫaḏ-e ṣūfiyāne-ye ū ». Ma‘āref, 17, 3 (1379/2000-1), pp. 52-94.

The use of medicinal plants is old as the existence of mankind. According to World Health Organization (WHO) data, about 80% of world population are using products based on medicinal herbs. Phytotherapy is based on the use of herbal drugs and medicinal products for the purpose of prevention and treatment. Rational phytotherapy is a modern concept of herbal medicines using, which are made of standardized herbal extracts. The quality of each final product is guaranteed by the use of raw materials of a standard quality, defined process of production, and validated equipment. Quality control of herbal drugs and herbal isolates (tinctures, extracts, and essential oils) is done according to the requirements of Pharmacopoeia and other relevant regulations. The scope of phytopreparation quality control depends on its pharmaceutical form. The formulation of a new phytopreparation is a process that has strictly defined phases: from analysis of literature and market, through defining recipes, validation of the production process, quality control of a final product to the preparation of technological and registration documents. The aim of this chapter is to present the process of herbal preparations production from selecting plant raw materials to herbal remedies (on the examples of making tea, tea mixture, drops, gels, and capsules).

From Medicinal Plant Raw Material to Herbal Remedies

Medical / Alternative & Complementary Medicine

[EN] Moringa oleifera is originally a tropical crop with a fast development, little known in developed countries but cultivated since ancient times. It can adapt to regions affected by climate change, such as the Mediterranean basin, since it is a crop with a great resistance to high temperatures. In this study an in-depth bibliographical review was carried out by consulting different databases (Science Direct, FSTA, Scielo, Riunet, and Google Scholar) in order to find published scientific studies on the characteristics of this crop and its agronomic requirements. According to the information found, all parts of the Moringa oleifera, namely the leaves, pods, seeds, roots and flowers, can be used in different industrial sectors such as pharmaceutical, cosmetic, human food, animal feed, and water treatment since they have a nutritional profile rich in high biological value proteins, vitamins A and C, antioxidants, omega-3 fatty acids and minerals: calcium, iron, potassium, and phosphorous. This research was funded by the project "New Crops Addressing Climate Change: Moringa and Stevia" (Ref. AGCOOP_A/2018/026 AVFGA-Generalitat Valenciana, Spain). Trigo, C.; Castelló Gómez, ML.; Ortolá Ortolá, MD.; García-Mares, F.; Soriano Soto, MD. (2021). Moringa oleifera: An Unknown Crop in Developed Countries with Great Potential for Industry and Adapted to Climate Change. Foods. 10(1):1-14. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010031 Vaknin, Y., & Mishal, A. (2017). The potential of the tropical «miracle tree» Moringa oleifera and its desert relative Moringa peregrina as edible seed-oil and protein crops under Mediterranean conditions. Scientia Horticulturae, 225, 431-437. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2017.07.039 Singh, A. K., Rana, H. K., Tshabalala, T., Kumar, R., Gupta, A., Ndhlala, A. R., & Pandey, A. K. (2020). Phytochemical, nutraceutical and pharmacological attributes of a functional crop Moringa oleifera Lam: An overview. South African Journal of Botany, 129, 209-220. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2019.06.017 Zainab, B., Ayaz, Z., Alwahibi, M. S., Khan, S., Rizwana, H., Soliman, D. W., … Mehmood Abbasi, A. (2020). In-silico elucidation of Moringa oleifera phytochemicals against diabetes mellitus. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 27(9), 2299-2307. doi:10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.04.002 Němec, P., Ungrová, M., Alem, S., Novák, J., & Habrová, H. (2020). Biomass production of a young plantation of Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufod. and Moringa oleifera Lam. in southern Ethiopia. South African Journal of Botany, 129, 463-470. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2020.01.018 Bancessi, A., Bancessi, Q., Baldé, A., & Catarino, L. (2020). Present and potential uses of Moringa oleifera as a multipurpose plant in Guinea-Bissau. South African Journal of Botany, 129, 206-208. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2019.06.013 Solidaridad. Moringa Trees against Climate Changehttps://www.solidaridadnetwork.org/news/Moringa-trees-against-climate-change Addressing Climate Change and Food Security with the Moringa Treehttps://www.worldagroforestry.org/news/addressing-climate-change-and-food-security-Moringa-tree Daba, M. (2016). Miracle Tree: A Review on Multi-purposes of Moringa oleifera and Its Implication for Climate Change Mitigation. Journal of Earth Science & Climatic Change, 7(8). doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000366 Manuwa, S. I., Sedara, A. M., & Tola, F. A. (2020). Design, fabrication and performance evaluation of moringa (oleifera) dried leaves pulverizer. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 2, 100034. doi:10.1016/j.jafr.2020.100034 Dev, S. R. S., Geetha, P., Orsat, V., Gariépy, Y., & Raghavan, G. S. V. (2011). Effects of Microwave-Assisted Hot Air Drying and Conventional Hot Air Drying on the Drying Kinetics, Color, Rehydration, and Volatiles ofMoringa oleifera. Drying Technology, 29(12), 1452-1458. doi:10.1080/07373937.2011.587926 (2016). An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 181(1), 1-20. doi:10.1111/boj.12385 Masih, L. P., Singh, S., Elamathi, S., Anandhi, P., & Abraham, T. (2019). Moringa: A multipurpose potential crop – A review. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy. doi:10.16943/ptinsa/2019/49653 NOUMAN, W., BASRA, S. M. A., SIDDIQUI, M. T., YASMEEN, A., GULL, T., & ALCAYDE, M. A. C. (2014). Potential of Moringa oleifera L. as livestock fodder crop: a review. TURKISH JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY, 38, 1-14. doi:10.3906/tar-1211-66 Liu, Y., Wang, X., Wei, X., Gao, Z., & Han, J. (2018). Values, properties and utility of different parts of Moringa oleifera: An overview. Chinese Herbal Medicines, 10(4), 371-378. doi:10.1016/j.chmed.2018.09.002 Anwar, F., Latif, S., Ashraf, M., & Gilani, A. H. (2006). Moringa oleifera: a food plant with multiple medicinal uses. Phytotherapy Research, 21(1), 17-25. doi:10.1002/ptr.2023 Taher, M. A., Nyeem, M. A. B., Ahammed, M. M., Hossain, M. M., & Islam, M. N. (2017). Moringa oleifera (Shajna): the wonderful indigenous medicinal plant. Asian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 3(1), 20-30. doi:10.3329/ajmbr.v3i1.32032 Oyeyinka, A. T., & Oyeyinka, S. A. (2018). Moringa oleifera as a food fortificant: Recent trends and prospects. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 17(2), 127-136. doi:10.1016/j.jssas.2016.02.002 Pontual, E. V., Carvalho, B. E. A., Bezerra, R. S., Coelho, L. C. B. B., Napoleão, T. H., & Paiva, P. M. G. (2012). Caseinolytic and milk-clotting activities from Moringa oleifera flowers. Food Chemistry, 135(3), 1848-1854. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.06.087 Falowo, A. B., Mukumbo, F. E., Idamokoro, E. M., Lorenzo, J. M., Afolayan, A. J., & Muchenje, V. (2018). Multi-functional application of Moringa oleifera Lam. in nutrition and animal food products: A review. Food Research International, 106, 317-334. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2017.12.079 S, G. Z., S, E., A, A. T., & A, K. (2015). Moringa oleifera: An underutilized tree in Nigeria with amazing versatility: A review. African Journal of Food Science, 9(9), 456-461. doi:10.5897/ajfs2015.1346 Saa, R. W., Fombang, E. N., Ndjantou, E. B., & Njintang, N. Y. (2019). Treatments and uses of Moringa oleifera seeds in human nutrition: A review. Food Science & Nutrition, 7(6), 1911-1919. doi:10.1002/fsn3.1057 Raman, J. K., Alves, C. M., & Gnansounou, E. (2018). A review on moringa tree and vetiver grass – Potential biorefinery feedstocks. Bioresource Technology, 249, 1044-1051. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2017.10.094 Fernandes, D. M., Sousa, R. M. F., de Oliveira, A., Morais, S. A. L., Richter, E. M., & Muñoz, R. A. A. (2015). Moringa oleifera : A potential source for production of biodiesel and antioxidant additives. Fuel, 146, 75-80. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2014.12.081 Gopalakrishnan, L., Doriya, K., & Kumar, D. S. (2016). Moringa oleifera: A review on nutritive importance and its medicinal application. Food Science and Human Wellness, 5(2), 49-56. doi:10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.001 Dhakar, R., Pooniya, B., Gupta, M., Maurya, S., Bairwa, N., & Sanwarmal. (2011). Moringa : The herbal gold to combat malnutrition. Chronicles of Young Scientists, 2(3), 119. doi:10.4103/2229-5186.90887 Brilhante, R. S. N., Sales, J. A., Pereira, V. S., Castelo-Branco, D. de S. C. M., Cordeiro, R. de A., de Souza Sampaio, C. M., … Rocha, M. F. G. (2017). Research advances on the multiple uses of Moringa oleifera : A sustainable alternative for socially neglected population. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, 10(7), 621-630. doi:10.1016/j.apjtm.2017.07.002 Babiker, E. E., Juhaimi, F. A. L., Ghafoor, K., & Abdoun, K. A. (2017). Comparative study on feeding value of Moringa leaves as a partial replacement for alfalfa hay in ewes and goats. Livestock Science, 195, 21-26. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2016.11.010 Stohs, S. J., & Hartman, M. J. (2015). Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Moringa oleifera. Phytotherapy Research, 29(6), 796-804. doi:10.1002/ptr.5325 Nama, K. S. (2015). Moringa oleifera Lam. – Sanjana (Horseradish Tree) – A Miracle food plant with multipurpose uses in Rajasthan-India-An overview. International Journal of Pure & Applied Bioscience, 3(6), 237-248. doi:10.18782/2320-7051.2169 Busani, M., Patrick, J. M., Arnold, H., & Voster, M. (2011). Nutritional characterization of Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) leaves. African Journal of Biotechnology, 10(60), 12925-12933. doi:10.5897/ajb10.1599 Hayes, K. (2002). Dietary fat and heart health: in search of the ideal fat. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 11, S394-S400. doi:10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s.7.13.x Shahidi, F., & Ambigaipalan, P. (2018). Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Their Health Benefits. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 9(1), 345-381. doi:10.1146/annurev-food-111317-095850 Umar, S., Mohammed, Z., Nuhu, A., Musa, K., & Tanko, Y. (2018). Evaluation of Hypoglycaemic and Antioxidant Activity of Moringa oleifera Root in Normal and Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats. Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, 2(8), 401-408. doi:10.26538/tjnpr/v2i8.6 Batool, S., Khan, S., Basra, S. M., Hussain, M., Saddiq, M. S., Iqbal, S., … Hafeez, M. B. (2019). Impact of Natural and Synthetic Plant Stimulants on Moringa Seedlings Grown under Low-Temperature Conditions. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 76, 50-59. doi:10.18052/www.scipress.com/ilns.76.50 Cáceres, A., Saravia, A., Rizzo, S., Zabala, L., De Leon, E., & Nave, F. (1992). Pharmacologie properties of Moringa oleifera. 2: Screening for antispasmodic, antiinflammatory and diuretic activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 36(3), 233-237. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(92)90049-w Pal, S. K., Mukherjee, P. K., & Saha, B. P. (1995). Studies on the antiulcer activity ofMoringa oleifera leaf extract on gastric ulcer models in rats. Phytotherapy Research, 9(6), 463-465. doi:10.1002/ptr.2650090618 Adouko, S. J., Soha, S. S. A., Ohouko, O. H. F., & Dougnon, T. J. (2020). Review on biological and immunomodulatory properties of Moringa oleifera in animal and human nutrition. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, 12(1), 1-9. doi:10.5897/jpp2019.0551

Canett-Romero, R., Arvayo-Mata, K. L., & Ruvalcaba-Garfias, N. V. (2014). ASPECTOS TÓXICOS MÁS RELEVANTES DE Moringa oleífera Y SUS POSIBLES DAÑOS. BIOtecnia, 16(2), 36. doi:10.18633/bt.v16i2.45

Olson, M. E. O., & Fahey, J. W. (2011). Moringa oleifera: un árbol multiusos para las zonas tropicales seca. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad, 82(4). doi:10.22201/ib.20078706e.2011.4.678 Siembra del Cultivo de Moringa (Moringa oleífera) en la Pampa de Villacurí, Departamento de Ica 2018http://190.119.243.88/bitstream/handle/UNALM/3223/F01-C44-T.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y Moringa oleífera: Árbol Multiusos de Interés Forestal Para el sur de la Península Ibérica 2016. Fichas de Transferencia Cajamarhttps://www.cajamar.es/pdf/bd/agroalimentario/innovacion/investigacion/documentos-y-programas/020-Moringa-v3-1476963334.pdf Xingú López, A., González Huerta, A., De La Cruz Torres, E., Sangerman Jarquín, D. M., Orozco de Rosas, G., & Rubí Arriaga, M. (2017). Chía (Salvia hispanica L.), situación actual y tendencias futuras. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas, 8(7), 1619-1631. doi:10.29312/remexca.v8i7.516 García Gabarra, A., Castellà Soley, M., & Calleja Fernández, A. (2017). Ingestas de energía y nutrientes recomendadas en la Unión Europea: 2008-2016. Nutrición Hospitalaria, 34(2), 490. doi:10.20960/nh.937 Villanueva Flores, R. M. (2019). Fibra dietaria: una alternativa para la alimentación. Ingeniería Industrial, (037), 229-242. doi:10.26439/ing.ind2019.n037.4550

Moringa oleifera: An Unknown Crop in Developed Countries with Great Potential for Industry and Adapted to Climate Change

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Status and Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in Nepalese Livelihood

Herbal medicinal products in Europe : status, registration, controls

‘In the herbal medicinal product va ma’sa-e: Oufiyane-ye’. Ma’aref, 17, 3 (1379/2000-1), pp. 52-94

From Medicinal Plant Raw Material to Herbal Remedies

Moringa oleifera: An Unknown Crop in Developed Countries with Great Potential for Industry and Adapted to Climate Change

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